![]() Note: The terms in which a course is normally taught is at the end of each description (F=Fall, Sp=Spring, Su=Summer). Jump to TN eCampus Courses. Justice, Western Theories of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Justice is one of the most important moral and political concepts. The word comes from the Latin jus, meaning right or law. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the “just” person as one who typically “does what is morally right” and is disposed to “giving everyone his or her due,” offering the word “fair” as a synonym. But philosophers want to get beyond etymology and dictionary definitions to consider, for example, the nature of justice as both a moral virtue of character and a desirable quality of political society, as well as how it applies to ethical and social decision- making. This article will focus on Western philosophical conceptions of justice. These will be the greatest theories of ancient Greece (those of Plato and Aristotle) and of medieval Christianity (Augustine and Aquinas), two early modern ones (Hobbes and Hume), two from more recent modern times (Kant and Mill), and some contemporary ones (Rawls and several successors). Typically the article considers not only their theories of justice but also how philosophers apply their own theories to controversial social issues—for example, to civil disobedience, punishment, equal opportunity for women, slavery, war, property rights, and international relations. For Plato, justice is a virtue establishing rational order, with each part performing its appropriate role and not interfering with the proper functioning of other parts. Aristotle says justice consists in what is lawful and fair, with fairness involving equitable distributions and the correction of what is inequitable. For Augustine, the cardinal virtue of justice requires that we try to give all people their due; for Aquinas, justice is that rational mean between opposite sorts of injustice, involving proportional distributions and reciprocal transactions. Hobbes believed justice is an artificial virtue, necessary for civil society, a function of the voluntary agreements of the social contract; for Hume, justice essentially serves public utility by protecting property (broadly understood). For Kant, it is a virtue whereby we respect others’ freedom, autonomy, and dignity by not interfering with their voluntary actions, so long as those do not violate others’ rights; Mill said justice is a collective name for the most important social utilities, which are conducive to fostering and protecting human liberty. Rawls analyzed justice in terms of maximum equal liberty regarding basic rights and duties for all members of society, with socio- economic inequalities requiring moral justification in terms of equal opportunity and beneficial results for all; and various post- Rawlsian philosophers develop alternative conceptions. View Notes - Public Health Interventions - Applications for Public Health Nursing Practice from NURSING BS C228 at Western Governors. Public Health Interventions. Study protocol for iQuit in Practice: a randomised controlled trial to assess the feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness of tailored web- and text-based. Multimedia-based training on Internet platforms improves surgical performance: a randomized controlled trial. Western philosophers generally regard justice as the most fundamental of all virtues for ordering interpersonal relations and establishing and maintaining a stable political society. By tracking the historical interplay of these theories, what will be advocated is a developing understanding of justice in terms of respecting persons as free, rational agents. One may disagree about the nature, basis, and legitimate application of justice, but this is its core. Table of Contents. Ancient Greece. Plato. Aristotle. Medieval Christianity. Augustine. Aquinas. Early Modernity. Hobbes. Hume. Recent Modernity. Kant. Mill. Contemporary Philosophers. Rawls. Post- Rawls. References and Further Readings. Primary Sources. Secondary Sources. Ancient Greece. For all their originality, even Plato’s and Aristotle’s philosophies did not emerge in a vacuum. As far back in ancient Greek literature as Homer, the concept of dikaion, used to describe a just person, was important. From this emerged the general concept of dikaiosune, or justice, as a virtue that might be applied to a political society. The issue of what does and does not qualify as just could logically lead to controversy regarding the origin of justice, as well as that concerning its essence. Perhaps an effective aid to appreciating the power of their thought is to view it in the context of the teachings of the Sophists, those itinerant teachers of fifth- century ancient Greece who tried to pass themselves off as “wise” men. In his trial, Socrates was at pains to dissociate himself from them, after his conviction refusing to save himself, as a typical Sophist would, by employing an act of civil disobedience to escape (Dialogues, pp. Plato is more responsible than anyone else for giving them the bad name that sticks with them to this present time; and Aristotle follows him in having little use for them as instructors of rhetoric, philosophy, values, and the keys to success. So what did these three great philosophers (literally “lovers of wisdom”) find so ideologically objectionable about the Sophists? The brief answer is, their relativism and their skepticism. The first important one, Protagoras, captures the former with his famous saying, “Man is the measure of all things—of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not”; and he speaks to the latter with a declaration of agnosticism regarding the existence of divinities. Gorgias (Plato named dialogues after both of them) is remembered for a striking three- part statement of skepticism, holding that nothing really exists, that, even if something did exist, we could not grasp it, and that, even if we could grasp something real, we could never express it to anyone else. If all values are subjective and/or unknowable, then what counts as just gets reduced to a matter of shifting opinion. We can easily anticipate how readily Sophists would apply such relativism and skepticism to justice. For example, Thrasymachus (who figures into the first book of Plato’s Republic) is supposed to have said that there must not be any gods who care about us humans because, while justice is our greatest good, men commonly get away with injustice. But the most significant Sophist statement regarding justice arguably comes from Antiphon, who employs the characteristic distinction between custom (nomos) and nature (physis) with devastating effect. He claims that the laws of justice, matters of convention, should be obeyed when other people are observing us and may hold us accountable; but, otherwise, we should follow the demands of nature. The laws of justice, extrinsically derived, presumably involve serving the good of others, the demands of nature, which are internal, serving self- interest. He even suggests that obeying the laws of justice often renders us helpless victims of those who do not (First, pp. If there is any such objective value as natural justice, then it is reasonable for us to attempt a rational understanding of it. On the other hand, if justice is merely a construction of customary agreement, then such a quest is doomed to frustration and failure. With this as a backdrop, we should be able to see what motivated Plato and Aristotle to seek a strong alternative. Multimedia- based training on Internet platforms improves surgical performance: a randomized controlled trial. The main interest of the study was to compare the effect of multimedia- based training with the effect of practical training on the surgical performance of surgical novices. The current study confirmed that multimedia- based training improved surgical performance of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in a Pelvi- Trainer significantly when used alone or as combination training. The participants undergoing practical training alone did not achieve similarly improved results. The groups had no major differences in terms of demographic or baseline test data, although the multimedia- based training group had the best results in the baseline tests. Because randomization was adequately concealed, this effect can be seen as unpredictable coincidence. Because the primary outcome criterion was the difference between posttest (follow- up) and pretest (baseline) results, ΔOSATS was not affected by these higher baseline results. Quite the contrary, to achieve higher ΔOSATS results, posttest values had to be even higher because pretest values were subtracted. During the experimental phase, the participants could contact other people including their co- participants. To reduce bias of possible effects from these contacts, we performed the randomization after the pretest. Talking or changing intervention groups by the participants could thus be avoided. Introduction to the Pelvi- Trainers was identical for all the participants because randomization took place after the introduction. The introduction was always performed by the same team members, who followed a written guideline containing the information they were allowed to present. Even if the introduction varied by different team members, this could not influence the results because one experimental group always consisted of one participant from each intervention group based on the study design, eliminating subsequent effects. Effects of the different camera assistants on the OSATS results also could be eliminated because they were blinded (in pre- and posttest) and not allowed to move the camera without the participant’s command. Before leaving the lab, all the participants had to sign an agreement that they would not take advantage of outside opportunities to improve their knowledge about laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Whether the participants kept their promise or not cannot be proven, but at least consecutive errors were avoided. Immenroth et al. [1. Referring to these results, we defined our aim criterion as the difference between the follow- up test after intervention (training) and the baseline test before intervention, measured in terms of the OSATS criteria of the task- specific checklist: ΔOSATS. A secondary outcome criterion was the ΔOSATS of the global rating scale. Findings have shown OSATS to be a feasible measuring tool [1. The task- specific checklist determines the ability of the participant to perform the individual steps in the sequence of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the Pelvi- Trainer. Hence, it is a combination of cognitive and practical tasks. Comparing a task- specific checklist, Immenroth et al. The global rating scale should consider the motor skills [1. Martin et al. [1. Most of the authors, having used OSATS in their studies, do not distinguish between the task- specific checklist and the global rating scale in terms of one being a better method than the other. Our findings support the aforementioned opinion. Groups undergoing multimedia- based training had the best results in terms of the task- specific checklist and the global rating scale compared with the practical training group. Because cognitive comprehension (learning the individual procedural steps) is elicited in the task- specific checklist, it is not too surprising that the multimedia- based training group showed the best results in this assessment, although the participants were asked to transform the theoretical knowledge they had learned with multimedia- based training to practical performance in the Pelvi- Trainer. Except the control group, all the intervention groups showed significant improvement in the global rating scale (p ≤ 0. An amazing result was that both groups undergoing multimedia- based training (multimedia- based and combination training) were better (respectively 6. Table 6). Table 6. Results of the objective structured assessment of technical skills (OSATS) global rating scale (detail)Compared with the findings of Immenroth et al. Apparently multimedia- based training not only teaches cognitive skills but also improves practical skills in a way that imparts the sense of tissue, the handling of instruments, and last but not least, the procedure itself. In a sense, this comprises the way surgery was taught in former days, with the surgical trainee adopting skills from the surgical teacher via a “see one, do one, teach one” approach. However, this way of teaching does not fit in our daily practice, and many physicians regard this training as insufficient [1. The time spent in the OR teaching raises enormous and inappropriate costs if this is the only venue of teaching [1. Additionally, this type of teaching is insufficient because trainees learn by practicing on real patients, and the residents feel inadequately trained to perform procedures by themselves [1. This consequent uncertainty leads to mistakes [2. Multimedia- based training offers a solution for these problems. The way the surgeries are presented in combination with videos allows the surgeon to “watch” the surgery and adopt the ways of the experienced surgeon. After undergoing multimedia- based training, the surgeon probably will feel better trained and more secure in the procedure itself, possibly avoiding potential mistakes. Before practicing on patients, the surgeon has already gathered some knowledge and will not use expensive time in the OR for practice. As one of five Internet platforms, www. We chose www. webop. Comparable evaluations are unknown to us. It will be a task for future studies to compare the learning effects of the different platforms. Although blind and randomized controlled trials are the best way to show possible differences in interventions, the results cannot be transferred to real- life teaching of young surgeons completely without considering the limitations of the study. Although it could be assumed that the relaxed atmosphere in the lab cannot be compared with the tense atmosphere in the OR, various studies have shown that skills acquired by simulation- based training seem to be transferrable to the setting in an OR [2. Findings have shown that even in simulations, surgeons experience stress levels, especially when undergoing crisis- simulation in virtual trainers [2. Nevertheless, the stress factor of operating on an organ model of a dead liver rather than a living patient may not be comparable. It therefore may lead to better results than could have been achieved in the OR. Contrariwise, the relaxed atmosphere in the lab may have led to carelessness and impreciseness of some participants due to the lack of any vital consequences. However, some of the participants may have acted better and some may have acted worse because of the lab atmosphere, so the lab environment may not have had any consecutive effect. In 2. 00. 2, Seymour et al. VR simulation significantly improves OR performance of residents when carrying out a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. These data were achieved in a small study including 1. A review in 2. 00. VR- to- OR skills transfer study model as a means of demonstrating the superiority of VR training activity over that of the simulator itself [2.All in all, it can be said that training improves OR performance compared with no training.But it is a task of the future to compare the value of the different training methods and their effect on OR performance. Therefore, we do not know whether our positive results with multimedia- based training can be transferred to the OR.
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